Effective Public Relations

Cutlip & Center

📚 GENRE: Business & Finance

📃 PAGES: 456

✅ COMPLETED: February 11, 2023

🧐 RATING: ⭐⭐⭐

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Short Summary

Effective Public Relations takes readers on a tour of the profession, highlighting the field’s origins, theories, and purpose in helping today’s companies effectively manage relationships with key audiences.

Key Takeaways

1️⃣ Relationships & Meaningful Change — Public Relations is really about helping an organization manage relationships between certain groups of people while creating meaningful internal change. A good PR team is proactive and realizes that public relations is not just about issuing press releases and media statements; the practice involves changing the organization and the environment based on what’s happening in the world.

2️⃣ Associates — Internal communications are an important aspect of public relations; your employees need to be advocates of your company. The company can’t succeed without the work of its employees, so effective communication with this group is perhaps more important than any other. 

3️⃣ Measure Results — Measure the results of your public relations campaigns whenever and however possible. Those in leadership positions want to see how successful or unsuccessful a campaign was. Measuring results can also help you make important decisions when designing future campaigns. 

Favorite Quote

“Without research, practitioners are limited to asserting that they know the situation and can recommend a solution. With research and analysis, they can present and advocate proposals supported by evidence and theory.”

Book Notes 📑

Ch. 1: Introduction to Contemporary Public Relations

  • Public Relations — Defined as the management function that establishes and maintains mutually beneficial relationships between an organization and the publics it serves. Public relations is the part of an organization that builds and maintains strong relationships with the key groups it needs to grow and thrive. It’s a strategic communication process. It’s not a sleazy way of burying the truth about a bad incident a person or organization was involved in — that’s a misconception people have about public relations. 
    • Quote (P. 3): “Rather, it (this book) describes public relations as the art and science of building and maintaining relationships between organizations and their stakeholder publics.”
  • Public Relations Summarized — Although there are many definitions of public relations, it all really comes down to eight key points. In essence, public relations:
    • Conducts a planned and sustained program by an organization’s management.
    • Deals with the relationships between an organization and its stakeholder publics.
    • Monitors awareness, opinions, attitudes, and behaviors inside and outside the organization.
    • Analyzes the impact of policies, procedures, and actions on stakeholder publics to identify those that conflict with the public interest and organizational survival.
    • Councils management to establish new policies, procedures, and actions that benefit both the organization and its publics.
    • Establishes and maintains two-way communication between the organization and its publics.
    • Produces measurable changes in awareness, opinion, attitude, and behavior inside and outside the organization.
    • Results in new and/or maintained relationships between an organization and its publics.
  • Public Relations Isn’t Marketing — Public Relations and Marketing are not the same thing. Marketing identifies human needs and wants, offers products and services to satisfy those demands, and causes transactions that deliver products and services to users in exchange for money. Marketing is more about exchanging goods with consumers while Public Relations is more about building strong relationships between the organization and the world. 
  • Parts of Public Relations — There are several components that make up Public Relations as a whole. These parts include:
    • Employee Communication — Before an organization can build relationships with customers, investors, and other outside entities, it must first build strong relationships with its employees. This is critical. You want to create a culture and environment that makes employees feel valued and helps maintain the best employees. No organization can win without its employees, so everything starts here. You have to build strong relationships with employees first and foremost.
      • Quote (P. 6): “When we talk about employee communications, we really think of it in terms of corporate culture — how work gets done in our company, how we view things here.” — Jon Iwata | President, Marketing and Communications at IBM
    • Publicity — This is news about the organization that the organization feeds to various news media outlets hoping it will be used. It’s basically public news on TV or in newspapers about the organization or company. Newsworthy events (i.e. ribbon cutting ceremony, press conferences, etc.) also generate publicity. Because the media ultimately writes or broadcasts the news, the organization doesn’t have complete control over the content.
      • Quote (P. 8): “Those operating under the publicity model typically began their careers as journalists and use their understanding of the media to craft newsworthy messages and events that will attract media coverage.”
    • Advertising — Unlike publicists, advertisers control content, placement, and timing by paying for media time and space. It’s a controlled method of placing messages in the media. Not all ads need to be trying to sell a product; they can also be used to accomplish other types of communication with an audience. You can use ads to get any kind of message across. 
    • Press Agentry — The act of creating newsworthy stories and events to attract media attention in order to gain public notice. Press agents are all about publicity — they are trying to get their organization’s name out there. They’ll do almost anything to make that happens. Their goal is to convince media outlets that the news about an organization is noteworthy and worth attention. Press agents are part of the reason public relations sometimes gets a bad rap. 
    • Public Affairs — The specialized part of public relations that builds and maintains organizational relationships with governmental agencies and community stakeholder groups to influence public policy. Think “public policy” when you hear public affairs. It’s all about creating and building strong relationships with government entities. 
    • Lobbying — Lobbying is the specialized part of public relations that builds and maintains relations with government, primarily to influence legislation and regulation. It is the practice of trying to persuade legislators to propose, pass, or defeat legislation or to change existing laws. Lobbying involves trying to manipulate government for selfish reasons. 
    • Issues Management — The process of anticipating, identifying, analyzing, evaluating, and responding to issues and trends that potentially affect an organization’s relationships with the public. The key is early identification of an issue and a strategic response to mitigate the problem. “Issues” can include things like terrorism, global warming, the regulation, offshore, outsourcing, food, safety, etc. 
    • Crisis Management — The public relations specialty that helps organizations strategically respond to negative situations and to dialogue with stakeholders affected by perceived and actual consequences of a crisis. When an issue balloons into a crisis and all hell breaks loose (i.e. the Tylenol Tragedy in 1982), this PR sub-team steps in. It’s become an increasingly important component of PR because of how important a firm’s reputation is. There are usually a few stages of crisis management:
      • Detection
      • Prevention/ Preparation
      • Containment 
      • Recovery
      • Learning 
    • Investor Relations — A specialized part of corporate public relations that builds and maintains mutually beneficial relationships with shareholders and others in the financial community to maximize market value. The job involves tracking market trends, monitoring financial blogs, providing information to financial publics, counseling management, and responding to requests for financial information. It’s all about helping the company maintain a good relationship with shareholders and the public at large. People working in this part of PR are often highly paid because you need to be an expert in public relations, business, finance, economics, and investing. 
    • Development — These are fundraising drives that provide financial support needed to operate charitable and nonprofit organizations. These organizations often use the title “development” or “advancement.” Development is the specialized part of public relations in nonprofit organizations that builds and maintains relationships with donors, volunteers, and members to secure financial and volunteer support. Development specialists work for charities, hospitals, museums, zoos, religious organizations, etc.

Ch. 2: Practitioners of Public Relations

  • Journalism — Throughout the history of the public relations discipline, those who have had previous journalism experience tend to thrive. It’s a natural transition because both fields require a lot of writing, and journalism gives a person a taste of what the “gatekeepers” are looking for — those in public relations work closely with journalists to facilitate news and information. Many public relations firms like to hire former journalists. 
  • Work Assignments — There are several skills and responsibilities that go into a typical job in public relations. A few of these include:
    • Writing & Editing — My job! A typical public relations job includes a lot of writing. Press releases, website content, talking points, brochures, newsletters, video scripts, advertisements are a few of the common writing assignments involved in the job. This is arguably the most important and used skill in the field. 
      • Quote (P. 30): “The mix of assignments and responsibilities varies greatly from organization to organization, but one task is the common denominator: writing.”
      • Quote (P. 42): “In short, both entry-level employment and long-term career success require the ability to write grammatically correct, easy-to-read, forceful, informative, and persuasive copy for publication and speech in both traditional and digital formats.”
    • Media Relations & Social Media — Contacting news media, magazines, freelance writers, etc. with the intent of getting them to publish or broadcast news about the organization. Responding to media requests for information. 
    • Research — Gathering information about public opinion, trends, emerging issues, political climate, media coverage, and other concerns related to the organization. 
    • Management of Clients and Staff — Establishing client relationships, managing client expectations, assessing resource allocation needs, and planning logistics.
    • Strategic Planning — Programming and planning in collaboration with other managers. Determining needs, establishing priorities, defining publics, setting goals and objectives, and developing messages, strategies, and tactics.
    • Counseling — Advising top management on the social, political, and regulatory environment. Consulting with the management team on how to avoid or respond to crisis.
    • Special Events — Arranging and managing news conferences, conventions, ribbon-cuttings, etc. 
    • Speaking — Appearing before groups and coaching others for speaking assignments. 
    • Production — Creating communication collateral products using multimedia knowledge and skills, including art, typography, photography, layout, and computer desktop publishing. 
    • Training — Preparing executives and other designated spokespersons to deal with media and to make other public appearances. Instructing others in the organization to improve writing and communication skills.
    • Personal Contacts — Serving as a liaison with the media, community, and other internal and external groups. Communicating, negotiating, and managing conflict with stakeholders.
  • Common PR Roles — The majority of roles in public relations fall under one of four umbrellas. These buckets include: 
    • Communication Technician — These are the entry-level type roles that require a lot of writing and very little management or strategic planning decisions. People in these roles write a lot of content. They don’t have a huge impact on key decisions at the organization. 
    • Expert Prescriber — These roles help with crisis management. They are seen as experts in the field and are called in when all hell breaks loose. They are seen as an authority or expert on what should be done and how it should be done. These are problem solvers. 
    • Communication Facilitator — Similar to the Communication Technician, people in these roles don’t have much of an impact when it comes to big management decisions and strategic planning. These people serve as liaisons and mediators between the organization and the public. They are “sources” or “contacts” at an organization and facilitate information. 
    • Problem-Solving Process Facilitator — People in these roles collaborate with management to define and solve issues. They are part of the strategic planning team. They don’t create a lot of content; their role is more focused on helping the organization solve problems.  
  • Keys to Success — The late public relations executive professor Richard Long had five qualities of those on the career “fast track” in public relations. These are keys to success in the field.
    • Results — People want results. Hard work and effort is great, but clients and organizations want to see results. 
    • Conceptualization — You have to be able to have a strong understanding of what the organization or client wants to accomplish. Take good notes and listen well.
    • Human Relations — Be a team player who balances personal goals with those of the organization. People with strong human relations skills know how to deal with management, including when to speak up when the boss is wrong.
    • Style — Have a “can-do” attitude. Be competitive. Those who succeed in public relations have a confidence to them and are persuasive.
    • Intangibles — Much of public relations involves dealing with people. Have a charisma, presence, and moxie about you. Know what the boss wants and be able to deliver it.

Ch. 3: Organizational Settings

  • Origins in Organizations — Many companies either have their own internal public relations department or hire and retain outside counsel. The department usually starts small with a few communications specialists who write employee newsletter, press releases, talking point, etc. As the company grows, the PR team gets bigger and begins to handle communication with all key stakeholders, like shareholders, the media, government agencies, etc. If a company doesn’t have a group of people who know how to deal with the media, employees, and the public, it’s going to be rough. You need skilled public relations people. Internal public relations managers in many cases report directly to the CEO.
    • Quote (P. 47): “The goal of most public relations departments is to improve communication and to build better relationships with all the corporation’s major internal and external shareholders.”
  • Role of Top Management — In the end, the functions and effectiveness of an organization’s PR department are highly influenced by the CEO and top-level management. If top-level management prioritizes and includes the PR team in its discussions and operations, the PR team will have more of an influence on strategic planning and organizational outcomes than if the top-level management neglects the PR team and doesn’t see enough value in it. Without CEO or top-level management support, a PR team is usually relegated to just pushing out various communications to key stakeholders. In this case, the team isn’t involved in strategy or organizational outcomes. It all depends on management’s attitude about PR.
    • Programmed vs. Nonprogrammed Decisions — When public relations operates in the realm of programmed decisions, it is seen as part of organizational routine and overhead. When it participates in non-programmed decision making, on the other hand, it is seen as playing an important strategic role in achieving organizational goals and contributing to the bottom line. Everything depends on how much the CEO includes, and involves, the PR team. 
  • Overcoming the CEO — There have been many cases in the past where the CEO of a company said or did something that was irreparable. PR departments can manage expectations and deal with the public effectively, but not if the CEO is constantly doing or saying damaging things. PR teams can’t overcome a bad CEO. 
  • The Internal PR Department — Most organizations have their own internal PR department. It’s much more common to see an internal department than to see a PR agency hired as outside counsel. The four main advantages of an internal department include:
    • Team Membership — An internal team can work right next to the CEO’s office. At many organizations, the CEO and PR department leader meet every day. That close proximity, contact, and familiarity are a big advantage over outside counsel. 
    • Knowledge of the Organization — An internal team has far more familiarity with the company’s culture, products, services, teams, etc. 
    • Economy — It’s cheaper to have an internal PR team vs. outside counsel. 
    • Availability — The ability to have quick face-to-face meetings at any time is huge. An internal department allows for that. 
  • Interesting Fact — At most organizations, the executive committee is referred to as “the C-suite.”
  • Public Relations Firms — Outside counsel is an option for companies. There are hundreds and hundreds of public relations firms around the world that can be hired to help a company develop detailed public relations strategies, many of them with their own unique niches. Some of these firms are hired after first being brought on to help a company solve a crisis. Many others have to make pitches to the company. Once hired, the firm usually either only helps with strategy, helps with strategy and some of the execution, or helps with strategy and all of the execution. 
  • Advantages of the Outside PR Firm — Just like there are advantages to having an internal public relations team, there are certain benefits that come with hiring a PR firm to provide outside counsel. These include:
    • Flexibility of Talent & Skill — PR firms usually have a lot of versatile staff members who can work on specific things that the company either doesn’t have the ability or desire to work on. 
    • Objectivity — An outside PR firm operates from a more objective space. They aren’t worried about office politics or power struggles. They like the company, but they aren’t biased about it. They can make decisions that are objective. Internal PR teams can sometimes make bad decisions because they are influenced in some way by working there. 
    • Prior Experience — This what PR firms do. They do this type of thing 24/7 and have a ton of experience working with other companies. That experience is a big advantage. It allows them to know what to do in almost any situation. 
    • Reputation — A PR firm comes with a reputation. You can tell if they are good based on their past experiences and reviews. Additionally, the PR firm is incentivized to do a great job in order to build its reputation in the industry. 
  • New Approaches — In today’s world, organizations are using a combination of internal departments and outside counsel to fulfill the public relations function. Many companies outsource some of the public relations duties that aren’t very significant but maintain control of the more important PR responsibilities. There’s a mixing and matching process going on. CEOs and managers are also starting to see more value in public relations than before. 

Ch. 4: Historical Origins and Evolution

  • Ancient Origins — From a farm bulletin found in 1800 B.C. Iraq to ancient Indian spies keeping the king in touch with public opinion, the history of public relations goes way back. The long history of public relations has shaped the state of the profession today more than most are willing to admit. 
  • Interesting Fact — The Romans coined the expression, vox populi, vox Dei — “the voice of the people is the voice of God.”
  • Samuel Adams — Some of the early developments of public relations can be traced back to the Revolutionary War and Samuel Adams, who knew the importance of public support and knew intuitively how to arouse and channel it. Adams firmly believed that most people were driven by their emotion and senses far more than logic. This belief drove many of his decisions. He was involved with the following items that are still a staple of public relations practices today:
    • Organization — Adams and the revolutionaries knew an organization was needed to carry our public relations messaging. The started the Sons of Liberty (1766) and the Committee of Correspondence (177)
    • Symbols — The Liberty Tree was an example of a strong symbol Adams and his group created. 
    • Slogans — Adams used slogans to turn complex issues into easy-to-remember phrases. “Taxation without representation is tyranny” was one of them. 
    • Staged Events — To catch public attention and provoke discussion. The Boston Tea Party was an example. 
    • Early Clarification — Adams understood the importance of getting your side of the story across first so your interpretation of events becomes the accepted one. This was put to use on the Boston Massacre. 
  • Alexander Hamilton — Hamilton was also an important early figure in public relations. He helped write The Federalist Papers, 85 letters written to newspapers in 1787 and 1788. The letter urged people to accept the Constitution in what many historians call the new nation’s “first national political campaign.” 
  • Political Reform Movements — Early developments in public relations are directly tied to power struggles evoked by political movements. These movements often came with a lot of passionate people on both sides of the issues. Regardless of the issue, both sides used public relations to try to sway public opinion their way. 
  • Growth of Businesses — From 1875-1900, America doubled its population, jammed its people in the cities, improved transportation options, developed the mass media of press and magazines, and established industry leaders. These 25 years laid the foundation for a mighty industrial machine. A small percentage of the country’s people and businesses were dominating the nation’s wealth, and that brought with it some hostility. During this period, corporations gradually began to realize the importance of combating hostility and earning public favor. Public relations became necessary.
    • Quote (P. 81): “Powerful business interests in the early 1900s employed public relations to defend themselves and their monopolies against muckracking journalists and a growing interest in government regulation. The strategy was to tell their side of the story and to counterattack to influence public opinion. The goal was to prevent increased governmental regulation of business.”
  • One-Way vs. Two-Way PR — The idea of propaganda was born before World War I as President Woodrow Wilson and his staff looked for ways to unite public opinion about the war. Propaganda is a form of one-way persuasive communication designed to influence others. Two-way public relations involves counseling management on changes needed within an organization. Two-way communication is more in line with what public relations is about today.
    • Quote (P. 82): “Although the one-way concept still dominates in many settings, contemporary practice increasingly includes management status and participation in corrective action, as well as two-way communication.”
  • Stages of Development — Looking back, there have been several really important periods that have defined the evolution of public relations. During these periods, the common approach to dealing with the public went from “public-be-damned” to “public-be-informed” to “mutual understanding” to “mutual adjustment.” These periods include:
    • Seedback Era (1900-1916) — Muckracking journalism countered by defensive publicity and of far-reaching political reforms promoted by Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson through the use of public relations. This era is home to The Publicity Bureau, the country’s first PR firm. It is also home to Ivy Lee, who is known as the father of modern public relations. He was part of the PR firm Parker & Lee, and was the first to start informing the public rather than simply ignoring or dismissing them. At the time, companies had the approach of just not caring about public opinion (“public-be-damned”). Lee changed that by issuing his “Declaration of Principles.” Lee was very involved with the Pennsylvania Railroad Company and its public relations efforts. In 1914 he was named a personal advisor to D. Rockefeller Jr. and helped him turn around his public image. This era also included President Theodore Roosevelt, who was extremely good at using the press to his benefit. He was always in the news. He was strategic with how he used the press. 
    • Word War I Period (1917-1918) — This period showed the power of organized promotion to encourage patriotism in the form of selling war bonds, enlisting soldiers, and raising millions of dollars for welfare. In this period, President Woodrow Wilson needed more support for the looming World War I. He established the Committee on Public Information (CPI), often referred to as the “Creel Committee” after its leader, George Creel. The CPI was charged with mobilizing public opinion in support of the war effort and Wilson’s peace efforts in a country in which opinion was very divided when war was declared. Without TV or radio to lean on, Creel created the Four Minutemen, a network of 75,000 volunteer civic leaders who would fan out to speak to schools, churches, service, clubs, and other gatherings. By the war’s end, nearly 800,000 of these four-minute messages promoting the war had been delivered. The Creel Committee was highly successful and helped gather a ton of public support for the war. Soldiers enlisted, huge money was raised for welfare, and the nation rallied around the war effort. 
    • Booming Twenties Era (1919-1929) — During this period, the successful principles and practices of publicity learned in the war were put to use promoting products, winning political battles, and raising millions of dollars for charitable causes. Arthur Page, another prominent figure in the history of public relations, operated during this era. He led AT&T and was the first to use the new science of public opinion polling as the basis for planning and evaluating public relations programs. He was also very involved as an advisor to President Harry Truman during World War II and helped with communications to the nation after we dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima in 1945. Many of Page’s fundamentals are still present in today’s way of executing public relations. Today, the Arthur Page Society provides leadership and continued growth for the public relations field. Those who become members epitomize the highest standards of the practice. 
    • Roosevelt Era and World War II (1930-1945) — An era dominated by Franklin D. Roosevelt and his PR counselor, Louis McKenry Howe as well as the Great Depression and World War II. Following the stock market crash of 1929, the country went into the Great Depression and there was a desperate need for public relations to explain social welfare programs and Roosevelt’s New Deal policies to the country. These needs led to a period of huge expansion and growth in the field of public relations. The early 1930s also produced the Gallup poll, which won a lot of respect in the presidential election of 1936. Public relations practitioners began to use these polls.
      • Quote (P. 94): “The Great Depression brought a tremendous expansion in social welfare needs and agencies, whose administrators also came to realize the need for better public understanding… Colleges and universities, caught in the web of financial woes, turned more and more to public relations to raise funds. Business leaders increasingly used public relations specialists to counter Roosevelt’s biting criticisms and his legislative reforms… School administrators, recognizing the need for bigger and better schools, also were made to realize the dangers of an uninformed public.”
        • Takeaway — The Great Depression caused a lot of financial problems for people and businesses. Every organization needed to carefully watch what they were doing and saying, which led to significant growth in the field of public relations. Organizations had to be strategic with their approach to public opinion. They had to be strategic to get their information out to people in a way that was easy to understand. 
    • Postwar Boom (1946-1964) — During this period, the nation moved from a war-oriented economy to a postindustrial, service-oriented economy. This era brought widespread acceptance of public relations in the form of strong professional associations, the beginnings of public relations education, and the emergence of TV as a powerful communications medium. The population was also growing quickly, and school districts had to encourage funding to build new schools using practices in public relations. The PR field continued to grow in this era. 
    • Period of Protest and Empowerment (1965-1985) — This era was defined by student and activist protests against environmental pollution, racial and gender discrimination, the Vietnam War, and government abuse of public trust. These events ultimately led to more socially responsible and responsive organizations. Protecting the environment and securing civil rights became the flagship causes of this era. Martin Luther King Jr. was a prominent figure during this period as he pushed the civil rights movement. He gave his “I Have a Dream” speech at the Lincoln Memorial in 1963 and was assassinated on April 4, 1968.
    • Age of Digital Communication and Globalization (1986-Present) — The birth of the Internet and the new technology that has followed defines this era. The public relations field, like almost every field, was changed significantly by the Internet, social media, and new technology. The individual now has a far bigger voice (via social media, blogs, etc.) than ever before. 
  • Interesting Fact — Rosa Parks was arrested in 1955 for refusing to give up her bus seat to a white passenger in Montgomery, Alabama. 
  • Interesting Fact — Ivy Lee, known as the father of modern public relations, was the first to make a press release. The press release was made in October 1906. The release was of a railroad accident involving the Pennsylvania Railroad.

Ch. 5: Professionalism and Ethics

  • Criteria of the Profession — Like most professions, the field of public relations has a set of standards or criteria to keep practitioners in line and give them opportunities to grow. Trust and ethics are essential in public relations because you are dealing with the public. You can’t gain the public’s trust without a set of professional standards. The following factors have contributed to the professionalization of public relations and help make the field a serious practice:
    • Professional Associations — There are several professional associations around the world that provide leadership, continuity, and continued growth for the field of public relations. They clearly set a standard of ethics to follow, mentor young practitioners, and advance the role of public relations in management. The general goal of these associations is to set a standard of ethics and advance the profession. There are international associations, national associations, specialized, regional, and local associations, and even student associations. All of these associations have members around the world. Big ones include:
      • International Association of Business Communicators (IABC)
      • International Public Relations Association (IPRA)
      • Public Relations Society of America (PRSA)
      • Public Relations Student Society of America (PRSSA)
    • Specialized Educational Preparation — Undergraduate and graduate degrees in public relations are a big part of the recommended educational preparation associated with the field. Continued education via public relations seminars and workshops are also key. Finally, educational resources in the form of books, webinars, etc. contribute to further educational preparation. It’s all about learning as much as you can about public relations and staying up to date on the latest developments going on in the field. There are many ways to do it. Educational barriers contribute to professionalization because they establish a set of qualifications you have to acquire in order to become part of the field — in other words, not everyone can do it. 
    • Research and the Body of Knowledge — The field of public relations is centered around a set of theories, research, and skills. These contribute to the professionalization of the field. The demand for research is perhaps one of the best indicators of a “professional” field. There are several organizations around the world dedicated to public relations research, and their goal is to fund research projects, publish results online, make academic research accessible to those in the field, and award undergraduate and graduate scholarships. One landmark research project in 1984 explored public relations’s contributions to a company’s bottom line and identified factors contributing to organizational success. It was a decade-long project that produced several principles of excellence in public relations, which many scholars consider the benchmark. In addition to research, there are various PR-related publications sent out every quarter that practitioners can use to stay up to date on what’s happening in the profession. 
    • Ethical Foundations of Professionalism — Every profession has a set of “applied ethics” that summarize a set of core beliefs held my most people in the field. The same holds true for public relations. The code of ethics is designed to protect both clients and the reputation of the profession. As a public relations professional, you are often entrusted with a lot of sensitive client information. The client is trusting you wholeheartedly based on your expertise and skillset. Violating this fiduciary responsibility in some way comes with consequences. You have a responsibility to be trustworthy and honest with clients and society. You must operate as a moral agent in society by placing public service and social responsibility over personal gain. A good public relations practitioner is always thinking about how a company’s products, policies, messaging, and actions will impact people in society. 
      • Quote (P. 117): “Ultimately, public relations is judged by its impact on society. Public relations’ value to society is enhanced when (1) it promotes the free, ethical competition of ideas, information, and education in the marketplace of public opinion; (2) it reveals the sources and goals of participants in the debate; and (3) it enforces high standards of conduct. Value to society is diminished when (1) it suppresses or otherwise limits competition of ideas; (2) it hides or ascribes to others the true sources of public relations efforts; and (3) it leaves unchallenged incompetent or unethical practice.”
    • Code of Ethics — In the United States, the PRSA Code of Professional Standards, which was first adopted in 1954 and has been updated several times, is the leading set of principles everyone in the field of public relations follows. An 11-member national board investigates complaints and makes recommendations on whether or not to bar somebody from membership who violated the code. Strangely, this code only applies to PRSA members. Some PR firms have adopted a similar code of ethics and require those who work at the firm to agree to it, even if they aren’t members of PRSA. Although firms and associations like PRSA have a code of ethics in place, it’s ultimately up to the individual to act ethically. Many “codes of ethics” have proven to be simply window dressing; every individual in public relations has to make a commitment to act ethically and encourage their company or PR firm to do the same. That is ultimately the best way to keep the profession in good standing with the public.
      • Quote (P. 121): “In other words, public relations professionals must behave ethically as individuals, as well as encourage their organizations to support ethical behavior. It is imperative that ethical behavior be authentic, institutionalized, and reinforced through codes of ethics, training, and sanctions within organizations.”
        • Takeaway — Ethics are a big deal in public relations because you’re dealing directly with society. Although there are codes of ethics in place, the responsibility to behave in an ethical, trustworthy way ultimately falls on you. It’s up to you to carry yourself the right way and encourage your organization to do the right thing. There is a story about a Toyota PR manager urging leadership to tell the truth to customers when an issue with one of the company’s model suspensions was discovered. That’s a good example. 
    • Accountability: Licensing & Accreditation — Another sign of a strong profession is the existence of licensing and accreditation. As of now, licensing of public relations practitioners exists only in Brazil, Nigeria, Panama, and Peru. This means that practitioners in those countries have to registered and are regulated by the government, much like those practicing law in the United States. The two main reasons many in the United States have pushed for licensing in public relations are protection of society and professionalization of practitioners. But there just isn’t a strong enough case to get forced licensing approved by the courts. The next best thing is accreditation. The most common accreditation is offered through the Universal Accreditation Board — it’s called Accredited in Public Relations or APR. 
  • Interesting Fact — The Hippocratic Oath was written in 400 BCE and obligates physicians to work for the benefit, not harm, of patients. 

Ch. 6: Legal Considerations

  • The Role of Law — The law is essentially a set of rules that governs society. Those in public relations don’t need to know the law, but there are certain elements of the law that can be helpful to know. 
  • Interesting Fact — In the United States government structure, both the executive and legislative branches make law, whereas the judicial branch interprets law to ensure that it complies with existing statutes and ultimately the US Constitution.
  • The First Amendment — Adopted in 1791 as part of the U.S. Constitution. Protects free speech and freedom of the press. Under the First Amendment, nobody can “force” the media to publish certain information. 
  • Commercial Speech — Companies are also partly protected by the First Amendment. The U.S. Supreme Court’s decision in the 1976 case Virginia State Board of Pharmacy v. Virginia Citizens Consumer Council laid out two conditions for commercial speech:
    • One — The commercial speech must be about legal activity. This is why cocaine dealers can’t advertise in the local newspaper. 
    • Two — The commercial speech can’t be misleading. The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) is responsible for regulating advertising. In April 2011, the FTC filed 10 claims against companies that were making misleading statements about açaí berries. 
  • Public Companies and Investor Relations — Practitioners who work for public companies, those who have shares that are publicly traded on the stock market, should know a bit about the Securities Act of 1933 and Securities Exchange Act of 1934.
    • Securities Act of 1933 — Restricts corporate communication before and during the period that new securities offerings are being registered. The 1933 Act regulates IPOs.
      • Quote (P. 137): “The law (1933 Act) requires that companies provide ‘material information’ about new security offerings so that investors can make purchasing decisions based on facts. Information is considered ‘material’ if the information is likely to have a significant effect on securities prices, or if it is likely to be considered important by a reasonable investor when making decisions to buy, hold, or sell shares.”
    • Securities Exchange Act of 1934 — Regulates trading of securities after their initial distribution. In other words, it regulates the trading of securities actually on the stock market. Requires periodic reporting about a company. This act created the SEC. 
    • Quote (P. 137): “Under the SEC’s ‘integrated disclosure system,’ corporations in which members of the public own shares must continuously provide information that affects the understanding of stockholders and investors about the financial position and prospectus of a company. Accordingly, practitioners must issue press releases, draft speeches, and write quarterly and annual reports to achieve the ‘adequate and accurate information’ required under federal law.”
  • Copyright — Copyright protections are in place to prevent people from stealing original work. A copyright exists the moment a work is created and copyright notice is placed on the work. After copyright expiration, the work passes from copyright protection into the “public domain,” in which case anybody in the public can use it. Generally, copyright belongs to the author of the work and you can use the material if the author never claims copyright. An example of proper copyright listing on a piece of work: © 2022 Jane Smith. Formal registration is necessary for a copyright owner to bring suit for infringement, but that formal registration can be made after the infringement occurs. Work covered by copyright include:
    • Literary Works (Books, Textbooks, etc.)
    • Computer Programs
    • Musical Works
    • Dramatic Works
    • Choreographic Works
    • Graphics
    • Movies
    • Sound Recordings
    • Architectural Works  
  • Trademarks — Trademarks are protected by common law and are good for 10 years once registered. Trademarks protect words, names, and symbols used by companies to identify and distinguish their goods or services from those of another. Trademark rights are created through adoption and use of the mark on goods in trade. A ® indicates a registered trademark, while a ™ indicates an unregistered trademark. When referencing something with a trademark, you have to use the appropriate symbols.
    • Ex. Certified Financial Planner™
    • Ex. CFP®

Ch. 7: Theoretical Underpinnings: Adjustment and Adaption

  • Adjust and Adapt — In order to serve effectively, PR teams need to help organizations adjust and adapt to changes in the environment. This involves constantly monitoring trends in the world and what certain groups of people that the company is associated with are thinking. By always looking ahead, PR teams can give organizations time to plan and an opportunity to be proactive, rather than reactive, to environmental changes.
    • Quote (P. 153): “These examples illustrate that change pressures on organization-publics systems come from many types of environmental sources. In turn, organization-publics relationships change in response to these environmental pressures. If they do not change, old relationships become dysfunctional because the organization acts and reacts in ways inappropriate to the new circumstances… Public relations is charged with keeping organizational relationships in tune with the mutual interests and goals of organizations and their publics.”
  • Systems Theory — All systems — mechanical, organic, and social — can be classified in terms of the amount and quality of interchange with their environments. There are closed systems on one extreme and open systems on the other. The extent to which systems are closed or open, indicates how sensitive they are to their environment.
    • Open Systems — Have the ability to adjust and adapt to constantly changing environments. These systems monitor and probe the environment to detect and predict changing conditions. They anticipate changes in their environment and initiate corrective actions designed to counteract or neutralize changes before they become a problem. Open systems are organizations that receive input from the environment and adjust themselves in response to that input.
    • Closed Systems — Will not change or adapt to the environment. Interactions occur within the system. They do not really engage with the environment and therefore are always reactive. Closed systems do not take in new matter, energy, or information. They do not adapt to external change, and eventually disintegrate.
    • Application to Public Relations — Systems theory applies to public relations in terms of proactive and reactive approaches. Reactive public relations involves responding to events after they have happened. Reactive approaches involve defensive tactics and resistance. These are characteristics of a closed system. No structural changes are made. Proactive programs, on the other hand, are open systems and use their early-warning “radar” to gather information, to make adjustments, and to generate internal and external output to prevent or avoid problems. Structural changes are made to adapt to the situation. 
  • Open Systems & Public Relations — News releases, email blasts, and other public relations responses are defensive and are a closed-system way of thinking. But this is the common approach for many PR teams, unfortunately. This approach is based on the assumption that the purpose of public relations is to bring about changes in the environment, that persuasive communication can make those things happen, that message placement in the media are all powerful, and that organizations do not need to change themselves in order to solve public relations problems. On the other hand, an open systems approach, casts public relations and the role of bringing about mutual change in both the environment and the organization based on the environmental inputs going on. Open systems change the organization and the environment! 
    • Ex. AT&T — In 1984, AT&T split into seven different companies after being ordered to split up its monopoly. The company planned ahead and was quick to anticipate what was going to happen. The transition was pretty fluid as a result. This is an example of open system thinking. 
  • Chapter Takeaway — The goal of public relations is not to simply react to what’s happening; the goal is to be proactive and anticipate things before they happen so you can help the organization avoid issues. A good PR team is proactive and realizes that public relations is not simply putting out press releases and media statements; the practice involves changing the organization and the environment based on what’s happening in the world. You’re trying to help the organization adapt and adjust structurally. Again, public relations is not just about putting out press materials. 

Ch. 8: Communication Theories and Context

  • Elements of the Mass Communication Model — There are several components of the communication process model. One of the key ones is persuasion, but more recent research has expanded the range of effects. The elements include: 
    • Senders — The credibility of the source matters. Source credibility amplifies the value of information. The perceived status, reliability, and expertness of the source add weight to a message.
    • Message — Different people can interpret a message differently, attribute different meanings to it, and react to it in different ways. That said, message characteristics can have powerful effects on the audience.
    • Medium or Channel — Face-to-face communication is still considered the most effective form of communication due to its ability to offer instant feedback.
    • Receivers — The audience is not passive, it’s active. People respond well to messages that are targeted and well-placed. 
    • Social Environment — When people think they can achieve something through joint action that they cannot accomplish individually, they form groups. Successful group decision making requires the following:
      • 1 — Developing an adequate and accurate assessment of the problem
      • 2 — Developing a shared and complete understanding of the goal and the criteria for success
      • 3 — Agreeing on the positive outcomes of decisions
      • 4 — Agreeing on the negative outcomes of decisions

Ch. 9: Internal Relations and Employee Communication

  • Internal Relations — Used to describe internal PR with associates/employees. The company can’t succeed without the work of its employees, so internal communication with this group is perhaps more important than communication with the public. Communication with all internal publics (line workers, managers, administrative staff, etc.) is vital to organizational success. Your employees need to be advocates of your company. That is so key, and it’s why internal relations is really important. 
  • Communication Problems — Opinion Research Corporation has tracked employee opinions of organizational communication since 1950. Fewer than half of all respondents say their organizations do a good job of “letting them know what’s going on.” This is referred to as downward communication (management to employee). Less than half also give high marks to the organization’s willingness to “listen to their views,” or upward communication (employee to management).
    • Takeaway — The majority of employees don’t believe their boss listens to them and don’t believe their boss does a good job of letting them know what’s going on. There’s often a lack of clarity in the line of communication between managers and employees. The best way to fix this is to have an “open door policy” where employees feel comfortable sharing their thoughts and frustrations at any time. 
  • Culture — Culture is a critical component to employee satisfaction and performance. Organizational culture is the sum total of shared values, symbols, meanings, beliefs, assumptions, and expectations that organize and integrate a group of people who work together.
    • Quote (P. 190): “The culture of an organization is often what defines it as different from other organizations, and — if managed properly — can be a valuable asset in building cohesion and teamwork inside the organization, resulting in organizational effectiveness — reaching its goals.”
  • Hofstede’s Elements of Culture — There are a few elements that make up culture. Every organization ranks differently in these areas, but all cultures include these elements. These were developed by Geert Hofstede.
    • Power-Distance — An organization with high power-distance is one in which managers and employees see themselves as inherently different from each other. In contrast, a low power-distance organization is one in which managers and employees see each other as equals, despite their different positions in the organization.
    • Individualism — This is the extent to which people put their own individual needs ahead of the needs of the group. Organization with strong, individualistic cultures reward employees on the basis of their personal achievement, and there is competition among employees to gain that individual recognition. On the other hand, organizations weak in individualism are strong in collectivism, emphasizing that needs and accomplishments of teams of employees and focusing on the goals of the group instead of the goals of the individual.
    • Uncertainty Avoidance — Explains the extent to which people prefer organizational communication and structures that reduce their social anxiety. Organizations with low uncertainty avoidance are more likely to engage in two-way public relations activities; in other words, they do not feel threatened by input from their environment.
    • Masculinity — Organizations that are high in masculinity reward competitiveness and initiative. An organization that is low in masculinity reward nurturing and cooperation. 
  • Systems Theory in Internal Relations — Based on a company’s attitudes set by leadership, it will have either an asymmetrical or symmetrical worldview. An asymmetrical worldview is one in which an organization’s goal is to get what it wants without having to change internally. It’s a closed system. A symmetrical worldview incorporates the ideas of negotiation, conflict resolution, and compromise. It’s an open system. These two worldviews lead to two different culture types. This is important because the way you communicate to employees in these two types of cultures will be very different.
    • Authoritarian — Communication in authoritarian cultures takes on the form of disseminating the ideas and goals decided by upper management to various internal employee publics. Authoritarian cultures are closed and resist change. 
    • Participative — Values dialogue and the exchange of input between the organization and its publics. This culture values innovation and seeks input from employees. Feedback is encouraged, is taken seriously, and leads to organizational change. 
  • Organizational Change: M&A and Layoffs — Internal communications during changes like a merger or acquisition, or layoffs are important because employees get worried. They want to know what’s going on and if their job is secure. They want to know what the changes mean for them. It is the responsibility of the internal relations team to be honest and forthcoming with all information to internal publics. Objectives should be to keep up staff morale, boost staff enthusiasm and interest in their jobs, and increase knowledge of what is being done to help those who lose their jobs. A three-step approach includes:
    • Phase 1 — Acknowledge the passing of the old and celebrate the new.
    • Phase 2 — Look at change or cognitive restructuring, which is timing critical (denial/resistance/exploration). 
    • Phase 3 — Provide rewards, trainings, and validation.
    • Quote (P. 197): “During re-organizations and layoffs, the responsible organization responds by helping employees to the greatest extent that it can. For instance, when a manufacturing site is the move, the company could pay to relocate employees to the new location or provide them with job search assistance and retraining.”
  • Goals of Internal Communication — Employee communication serves several purposes. In general, it’s designed to boost, morale and culture, deliver key company news and information, and listen to employees. The goals of internal communications are summarized in the following three pillars.
    • Acculturating Employees — Vision statements, mission statements, policy documents, training manuals, and ethics statements serve to boost employee morale and get everyone on the same page. In this way, internal communications gets everyone on the same page with company culture and purpose, and gets everybody working in the same direction.
    • Informing Employees — Whether it’s company-wide meetings (i.e. Cambridge Town Halls), employee publications (i.e. company magazines), or daily newsletters (i.e. Cambridge Today), there are many ways that an internal relations team can communicate with employees every day to deliver the latest news and information about the company.
    • Listening to Employees — Internal satisfaction surveys and feedback boxes allow the internal relations team to gather key opinions from employees and get a pulse on how everybody is feeling. 

Ch. 10: External Media and Media Relations

  • Interesting Fact — Historians generally agree that Benjamin Franklin originated the concept of a magazine when he published General Magazine in January 1741. Historians also agree that America’s first “national medium” was Franklin’s Saturday Evening Post, first published in 1821.
  • Transparency in the Social Media Age — It’s more important than ever for organizations to be transparent when communicating with the public. In the age of social media, people online will find out about your secrets at some point. Hiding something is the worst thing you can do. When the Internet digs up your demons, it’s going to be a bad look when the news breaks on social media. Instead, PR teams should encourage organizations to be transparent with good and bad news. Get ahead of bad news by announcing it first. 
  • Working With the Media — Journalists and PR people have always butted heads because each group has different goals. Journalists want to get relevant and original stories in the paper, and refuse to admit that PR people help via press releases sent to the journalist. PR people want to get information about the organization they represent in the paper.
    • Quote (P. 228): “In short, the underlying conflicts of interest and of mission necessarily make the practitioner-journalist relationship adversarial. The practitioner advancing a particular cause or organization stands in stark contrast to the journalist’s drive to dig up news through good reporting and journalistic initiative.” 
  • Guidelines for Good Media Relations — There are a few tips and tricks PR people can use when dealing with journalists or representatives from other news outlets. These include:
    • Shoot Straight — Never lie to a journalist. Good news and bad news usually balance out, so share it all with journalists. Never favor one particular news outlet over others. The safest rule is to get news out to all relevant media outlets as fast as possible, and let the media determine the cycle in which it breaks.
    • Give Service — Be a reporter’s reporter. Provide journalists with newsworthy, interesting, and timely stories and pictures that they want, when they want them, and in the form that they can readily use. Be available for journalists at all times; if they have a question, be willing to drop everything to answer it. 
    • Don’t Beg — Never beg for a journalist to run your story. Journalists have a flood of stories to go through, so don’t press them to publish a story that you are involved with. If they want to run your story, they’ll run it. 
    • Don’t Ask for ‘Kills’ — Never ask a journalist to kill a story that you’re involved with. It’s OK to ask for delays, but never try to control what the journalist is going to do.
    • Don’t Flood the Media — Don’t bombard journalists with stories about your organization. Send your potential story to one person (the appropriate person based on the type of story) at each outlet and let them decide if they want to run it.

Ch. 11: Management Process Step One — Defining Public Relations Problems

  • Anticipating Issues — Over time, public relations has gone from the days of reacting to situations to now trying to anticipate threats and proactively manage relationships between an organization and its publics. In the old days, public elations was very reactionary and had a “fly by the seat of your pants,” gut-feeling attitude. Research plays is the key element in this anticipatory process. 
  • Management Process — In its most advanced form, public relations is a scientifically managed part of an organization’s problem-solving and change processes. Practitioners of this type of public relations use theory and the best available evidence in a four-step problem-solving process: 
    • Defining the Problem (Or Opportunity) — This first step involves identifying the “what’s happening now?” that created the problem or the perception that something could be improved. It involves probing and monitoring knowledge, opinions, attitudes, and behaviors of those internal and external publics concerned with and affected by the acts and policies of an organization. Research is critical here and set the table for the next steps. This step is discussed here in Chapter 11. 
    • Planning and Programming — Information gathered in the first step is used to make strategic decisions about program goals, target publics, objectives, action, and communication. This involves factoring the findings from the first step into the policies and programs of the organization. This step answers the question: “Based on what we have learned about the situation, what should we change or do in order to solve the problem or seize the opportunity?” This step is discussed in Chapter 12. 
    • Taking Action and Communicating — This third step involves implementing the program of action and communication tactics designed to achieve the specific objectives discovered in the first two steps. The questions in this step are: “What should we do and say, who should do and say it, when and in what sequence, where, and how?” This step is discussed in Chapter 13. 
    • Evaluating the Program — Assess the impact of the program. Based on feedback, adjustments are made while the program is being implemented. Programs are continued, modified, or stopped after learning. Key questions here include: “How are we doing, or how did we do?” This step is discussed in Chapter 14.
  • The Role of Research — Research is so important in public relations, especially if you want the PR team to be taken seriously by top-level management. Without research, you can’t get a full understanding of the situation. You’re like the six blind men from the “Indostan” fable; you partly understand what’s going on, but you don’t fully understand. Research is defined as “the systematic gathering of information to describe and understand situations and to check out assumptions about publics and public relations consequences. Its main purpose is to reduce uncertainty and decision making.” Traditionally, PR people have been too lazy to conduct research on the publics they serve, instead preferring to go by their gut feeling or intuition. The problem is that modern managers are fact-minded and want figures/data before making decisions. They want the comfort that comes with having proven data.
    • Quote (P. 241): “Without research, practitioners are limited to asserting that they know the situation and can recommend a solution. With research and analysis, they can present and advocate proposals supported by evidence and theory.”
    • Quote (P. 242): “Research is a high-hat word that scares a lot of people. It need not. It is rather simple. Essentially, it is nothing but a state of mind — a friendly, welcoming attitude towards change. Going out to look for change, instead of waiting for it to come. Research is an effort to do things better and not be caught asleep at the switch. The research state of mind can apply to anything. Personal affairs or any kind of business, big or little. It is the problem-solving mind as contrasted with the let-well-enough-alone mind. It is the composer mind, instead of the fiddler mind; it is the ‘tomorrow’ mind instead of the ‘yesterday’ mind.” — C.F. Kettering
      • Takeaway — Research is the constant push to evolve. When you do research, you’re actively looking for ways to improve and do things better. Research can help you gather data and insights needed to make smart, educated decisions. Doing research is therefore always worth the effort. At the end of the day, you want to make the best possible decision, regardless of what you’re faced with. 
  • Listening — Effective public relations starts with listening, which requires an open system. Failure to listen often leads to purposeless “communications” on issues that do not exist to publics that are not there. Unless you know the language, orientation, and predisposition of your audience — learned through empathetic listening — you are not likely to communicate effectively. Surveys are a good way to listen. Whenever possible, conduct surveys on the target audience/public.
  • Problem Statement — The goal with anticipatory public relations is to identify and solve a developing issue before it blows up. Continuous fact-finding and monitoring uncovers many problems while they are still small enough to permit corrective action and communication before they become major public issues. The last thing you want to do is be forced to pay millions of dollars for an ad to apologize and promise corrective action. You never want something to get to that point. A problem statement can help you identify an issue early, summarize it, and get a good understanding of it. There are a few steps to creating one:
    • Present Tense — Write it out in the present tense.
    • Measurable Terms — Write out the situation in specific and measurable terms. It should answer the following:
      • What is the source of concern?
      • Where is this a problem?
      • When is it a problem?
      • Who is involved or affected?
      • How are they involved or affected?
      • Why is this a concern to the organization and its publics? 
    • Uses Data — Include data points in your problem statement. 
    • Ex. University Problem Statement — Only 5% of new graduates join our alumni association during the first year following graduation, compared with 21% of all graduates, resulting in lost contact and reduced support for the university.”
  • Situation Analysis — After drafting an initial problem statement, the PR team needs to gather as many internal and external information as possible to get a full scope of the issue and what needs to get done. This is called a ‘situation analysis.’ From there, the team can continually adjust and refine the problem statement based on the information gathered.
  • Research Methods — Some PR teams hire a research firm to actually conduct and analyze research. Some PR Teams do it themselves in house. Either way, a few of the research methods used to acquire high-quality data needed to make educated PR decisions include:
    • Informal or “Exploratory” Methods — These are very informal methods that aren’t always the best because they may result in biased or inaccurate research. This type of research is primarily used by PR teams though. These methods are great for detecting or exploring a problem, but aren’t the best for actually describing the problem in depth. Formal methods of research are better for that because they are a little more comprehensive. Informal research methods include:
      • Personal Contact & Observation — There’s nothing better than spending time with the audience or public you’re serving. You can get great feedback from talking to the people affected by your organization. This is a great way to do research.
        • Ex. Drug Treatment — To prepare for a drug treatment campaign, one hospital sent a member of the PR team to a drug rehab center undercover to get an idea about drugs, their use, and effects on employees. 
        • Ex. Cambridge Stronger Podcast — There’s no better way to get good ideas for guests for future years than asking our financial professionals directly!
      • Key Informants — Talking to subject matter experts. 
      • Focus Groups — Use focus groups to explore how people will react to proposals and to gather other useful information. These are groups of 6-12 people from a targeted audience.
        • Ex. Star Wars — Twentieth Century Fox used focus groups to gauge public interest in a George Lucas movie they later called Star Wars. 
      • Community Forums — Larger groups of people from the community. These sessions open up dialogue about potential policies or initiatives that will affect the whole community. 
      • Advisory Committees & Boards — Advisory committees are great because they give the organization feedback that can be put to work right away. Use these committees to test ideas, but you have to be willing to use their input or they will be upset.
        • Ex. Cambridge DE&I Committee — We run ideas related to DE&I through this committee. They let us know what is OK to post on social media for Black History Month, for example. 
      • Ombudsman — Someone who listens to the concerns of employees and will make recommendations to spark change at the organization. This person essentially investigates and solves problems within the organization by listening to complaints. 
      • Call-In Telephone Lines — 1-800 numbers allow customers and others to call in and express their opinions, feedback, and criticism of a company. This can be a great way for a company to gauge how people are feeling and detect problems at the ground level. Changes can be made before a problem becomes a crisis. 
      • Mail & Email Analysis — Similar to the 1-800 number, an open email line gives a good look at what the company is going well and what it’s not doing well.
        • Ex. Ford — At its peak, Ford Motor Company’s “We Listen Better” campaign brought in 18,000 letters a week. The company grouped each piece into comments, suggestions, and criticisms and kept a running tally that they monitored weekly. 
      • Social Media & Online Sources — You have to monitor what is being said about the organization online and on social media. Occasionally, bad rumors on the internet will end up in print without the company even knowing about it. Use Google and social media to monitor what is being said about the company. 
    • Formal Research Methods — The informal methods described above give PR teams a look at potential issues at a surface level. Depending on the frequency or severity of these issues found via informal research, the team might want to conduct more formal research into a certain problem. Formal research methods gather data from an entire population rather than segment of it (informal research). These formal methods of research follow the scientific model of conducting research (hypothesis, testing, error rates, etc.) Methods include:
      • Secondary Analysis & Online Databases — Not all research needs to be new or original. The U.S. Census Bureau has a lot of good demographic data. Other government reports also provide excellent formal research to draw on. Nielsen and Gallup offer polling data that can be used. Other commercial reports offer great data and insights. Major universities also offer a ton of great research. There are a lot of great options to draw on. Use Google to find a lot of these. Online databases are also great. Some good online databases:
      • Surveys — There are many surveys an organization can conduct to get valuable insight on what people are thinking. Mail, in-person, online, and telephone surveys are a few of the options a PR team can choose from. Online surveys can be created on surveymonkey.com and sent to a company’s email list. 

Ch. 12: Step Two — Planning and Programming

  • Planning and Programming — Planning and programming is the second step in an effective public relations campaign. Once the public relations problem or opportunity has been defined through research and analysis (Step 1), practitioners must determine what goals are desired by organizational management to either erase the problem or to capitalize on the opportunity. In short, this second step involves making the basic strategic decisions about what will be done in what order in response to or in anticipation of a problem or opportunity.
  • Set Goals — Setting goals for a campaign is the first order of business in the planning step. Develop an overall, big picture goal that you’re hoping the campaign will accomplish. From there, you can work backwards and outline the things that have to happen in order to reach the goal. Never start a campaign without a clearly stated goal! If you do, you’ll waste a lot of time and resources because you’ll lack clear direction. 
  • Target Specific Publics — The next order of business in the planning stage is identifying target publics or a target audience that the public relations campaign will be tailored to. This is alarmist like creating buyer personas in marketing. The key to defining publics strategically is to identify how people are involved and affected in the situation for which the program is being developed. It’s important to specify how people are involved in or affected by the problem, who they are, where they live, what relevant organizations they belong to, and what they do that is relevant to the situation. You want to target audiences that are more likely to seek out information on the issue and share the information with others. 
    • Level of Involvement — The best people to target are groups that exhibit a high level of involvement, meaning they see themselves as being part of or involved with the problem in some way and therefore actively seek information about the issue or opportunity. These are the people who you want to address and target with your campaign because they are watching carefully and are the most invested. 
  • Outline Objectives — Plan objectives differ from the overarching campaign goal in that they are smaller subsets that, when executed, lead to achieving the overall goal. To be taken seriously by management and to earn a spot at the table to make big organizational decisions, PR teams must a clear goal and clear objectives leading to the goal. There are usually several objectives. A good objective includes the following:
    • Target Public — What’s the audience? Who are you targeting? Who do you want to impact or change in this campaign? 
    • Outcome — What are you trying to accomplish with this objective? Are you trying to deliver knowledge? Are you thing to change how people feel/their opinions? Are you trying to affect what people do (behavioral changes)? The outcome usually aims to address one of those areas. 
    • Measurement — Results should always be measurable so you know if you’re executing the objective well. 
    • Target Date — List a date you want to accomplish the objective. 
  • Select Tactics — Objectives are more like the strategy to accomplish the overarching goal of a campaign. Tactics are the specific items used to accomplish and objective. These are things like newsletters, press releases, informational meetings, 1-800 telephone line, an annual report, exhibit booths, etc. Think of it like a ladder — the objectives are the ladder itself leading up to a goal, and tactics are the individual steps on the ladder. 
  • Creating Action & Change — Again, the point of public relations is not just to help organizations communicate with the public; the role of public relations is to help the organization take meaningful action and create purposeful change within the organization. The common misconception about public relations is that it’s all about working with organizations to communicate with the public. While that is a big part of it, public relations is really about helping organizations change for the better. You’re trying to help an organization’s policies, procedures, products, services, and behavior.
    • Ex. Oil Spill — If a company is involved in an oil spill, the role of the PR team would be to help the organization stop dumping oil, plan and explain how it will clean up the toxic mess, and then describe to concerned stakeholders how the company will safely dispose of toxic waste in the future.
  • Getting Management Buy-In — The best way to get a public relations campaign or plan approved by management is to show how it can help the company’s bottom line. Often, the health of the bottom line depends on the health of the organization’s reputation. The PR team is responsible for protecting and enhancing the company’s reputation, so if you can show how the proposed plan can contribute to the organization’s mission, its operational goals, and its good reputation, you should have a good shot at getting executive buy-in. 
  • Crisis Management — If at all possible, think ahead to potential crises that your company might fall into some day. Plan ahead and have a plan in place to respond to the various scenarios you think of. When a crisis does happen, respond quickly! You have to get your side of the story out there as soon as possible or the media and your competitors will speak for you, which is never good. The worst thing you can do is take forever to respond or put a statement out there. Rumors will begin to fly and sway public opinion. You will lose control and won’t be able to recover. 

Ch. 13: Step Three — Taking Action and Communicating

  • Action & Communication — There are two components to implementing a public relations campaign or plan: action and communication. Both complement each other. A successful campaign both causes meaningful action within the organization (via policies, procedures, products, services, behavior, etc.) and accurately communicates those actionable changes to the target publics/audience.
    • Quote (P. 287): “Words are merely words, and they can be purely cosmetic if they aren’t backed by convictions, actions, and policies.” — Harold Burson
    • Quote (P. 290): “Whereas the focus of the action program is internal organizational change, the focus of the communication program is messaging.”
  • Case Study: Tylenol Poisoning Crisis — Late in 1982, Johnson & Johnson faced a crisis when seven people in Chicago died from cyanide poison that had been inserted into Tylenol capsules. The news spread rapidly and consumers and healthcare workers began to panic. The way Johnson & Johnson handled the situation is a perfect case study in what to do when facing a crisis. In the end, the company cooperated fully with the FBI, the media, and the Food and Drug Administration. The company acted quickly and did the right thing at every step, even when it meant huge hits in profit. The steps Johnson & Johnson took include:
    • Immediate Action — Stopped production of Tylenol capsules and halted promotional advertising.
    • Quick Communication — Established a liaison with the Chicago police, the FBI, and the Food and Drug Administration.
    • Pulled Products — Recalled all Tylenol capsules: 31 million bottles with a retail value of more than $100 million.
    • Developed New Packaging — Designed and produced tamper resistant packaging.
    • Released New Packaging — Returned Tylenol capsules — in new packaging — to the market with a stepped up marketing effort to assure users of the product’s safety.
  • The Communication Program — The communication arm of the plan has two components. These include:
    • Message Content — Deals with how messages are developed, created, and expressed.
    • Message Delivery — Deals with the channels through which message dissemination takes place. Carefully selecting the right mediums or vessels to deliver your message is essential. 
  • Message Content — Crafting and framing effective messages comes down to putting yourself in the audience’s shoes. Much like marketing content, you have to show how the news you are delivering will help or impact your target audience. Keep in mind, are studies showing that people’s opinion about your message is affected by prior information you deliver earlier in the message. This means if you have to deliver bad news in your message, try to first provide prior good news relating to the topic. If you’re going to raise prices, for example, first provide information about how many new product enhancements you’ve introduced in the past year at the top of the message to absorb the blow.
    • Quote (P. 292): “The first principle of framing message content is to know the client’s or employer’s position and the problem situation intimately. The second principle is to know the needs, interests, and concerns of the target publics.”
  • Denotative vs. Connotative — When writing messages, keep in mind that words have a denotative and connotative meaning. Denotative meaning refers to the dictionary definition of the word. Connotative meaning refers to the emotional or evaluative meaning of the word based on our background, experience, and culture. 
  • Interesting Fact — The Red Cross originated in Switzerland in 1863 and created its symbol by reversing the white cross and red background of the Swiss flag. The cross is associated strongly with Christianity, which is not always well received in countries whose people have a different faith. When providing humanitarian assistance in Muslim countries, for example, the organization operates under the name of The Red Crescent. The Crescent is a symbol of Islam.

Ch. 14: Step 4 — Evaluating the Program

  • Measure Results — There’s no way to tell how effective your plan or campaign was unless you measure and evaluate results. You have to know what kind of ROI you’re getting. Find ways to measure your results. Measure as much as you possibly can. Data helps you make decisions going forward, and is crucial when it comes to getting a seat at the management table. Upper level leadership will not take you seriously without data points. Remember, what you’re trying to measure is impact, not simply aesthetic stats like number of news releases written, meetings held, brochures distributed, social media captions posted, etc. It requires some ingenuity, but you want to measure the following impact areas in particular:  
    • Knowledge Gain — The number of people who learned from your message content. 
    • Attitude Change — The number of opinions you changed.
    • Behavior Change — The number of people who changed their behavior as a result of your campaign. 

Ch. 15: Business and Industry

  • Social Responsibility — Companies should strive to make a difference in the world because it’s more important to customers and employees today than ever. The PR Team should do a good job of communicating what the company is doing to the public. In the end, companies should always strive to make a greater impact in the world than simply making a profit. 

Ch. 16: Government and Politics

  • Public Affairs — Public affairs involves government officials communicating with the public. Specific public affairs objectives vary from agency to agency, but the basic justification for government public affairs rests on two fundamental premises:
    • Report — A democratic government must report its activities to the citizens.
    • Active Citizen Support — Effective governmental administration requires active citizen participation and support.

Ch. 17: Military Public Affairs

  • Military Communications — The primary role of military public affairs is to provide information to the public about military policies and operations; to enhance morale of the men and women who serve; and to showcase the efforts and accomplishments of the men and women serving in the Army, Navy, Air Force, Marines, and Coast Guard. The goal is for citizens and elected representatives to have the best information available when making decisions about the policies and operations of the military branches. Unlike regular civilians in public relations, those working in military public affairs are restricted from and do not try to influence public opinion. There’s no persuasion going on — it’s more about getting appropriate information out to the public. 

Ch. 18: Nonprofits and Nongovernmental Organizations

  • Defining Nonprofit Organizations — Nonprofit organizations exist as a special category of organizations in the tax code in recognition that they provide charitable work and serve the good of the public. Although there are various types of nonprofit organizations, they are all exempt from federal taxes.
  • Public Relations & Nonprofits — The demand for government services continues to outpace revenues, and state, county, and local budgets have been cut, causing even fewer staff and reduced resources for social services. This is why philanthropic support for nonprofit organizations is so important. It is one of the roles of the public relations practitioner to help generate that activity. 
    • Skepticism — Many people also look at nonprofits with a skeptical eye. A Harris poll found that only 1 in 10 people strongly agree that charitable organizations are honest and ethical in their use of donated funds. Public relations is tasked with both helping rebuild credibility and maintaining or trying to restore public confidence in the many charitable agencies and volunteer groups around the country.
  • Role of Public Relations in Nonprofit Organizations — Public relations plays an important role in making nonprofit organizations more successful. In most nonprofits, the public relations role includes internal and external communication to achieve the following:
    • Build Awareness — Define or brand the organization to build top-of-mind awareness, gain acceptance of its mission, and protect its reputation.
    • Communicate — Develop channels of communication with target audiences, including those the organization serves and those that can impact the nonprofit’s performance.
    • Fundraising Campaigns — Create and maintain a favorable climate for fundraising and coordinate communication strategies for fundraising campaigns.
    • Public Policy — Support the development and maintenance of public policy that is favorable to the organizations mission.
    • Recruit Volunteers — Recruit and motivate key organizational people, including employees, volunteers, and trustees.
  • Defining Foundations — A foundation is a non-governmental, nonprofit organization that uses its own funds to provide grants and financial assistance, primarily to other unrelated nonprofit agencies for educational, social, religious, cultural, or other charitable activities.
  • Cause Marketing — Cause marketing partners nonprofits with businesses to accomplish mutual goals, such as funding for the nonprofit and an enhanced reputation for the business, which can lead to additional sales. 
    • Ex. Neutrogena — Neutrogena partnered with the American Cancer Society (ACS) to fight skin cancer. An awareness campaign explained the dangers of tanning while a special “Pale is the New Tan” T-shirt was sold on Amazon, with $3 for each shirt going to ACS.

Ch. 19: Health Care

  • Public Relations & Health Care — The roles and responsibilities of public relations practitioners in health care are similar to those working in more traditional lines of business, like companies. The difference is that, in health care, patient privacy is extremely important. Patients put huge trust in their health care providers, and practitioners have to abide by certain rules to protect that trust.
    • Complexity — The other difference revolves around the complexity of health care issues, regulations, and advancements. Somebody working in PR in health care has to have a great understanding of so many complex things and be able to communicate them to an audience that may not understand these things at all but are deeply affected by them. Crafting messages that resonate with the public can be difficult when working in health care. 
    • Spokespersons — Health care PR teams do have one clear advantage over people working in PR at traditional firms: highly trusted physicians and health care professionals who provide the care. Doctors and nurses are subject matter experts that people almost automatically trust. PR teams can use that to their advantage. 
  • Interesting Fact — The Health Insurance, Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA) protects the privacy and security of patients’ healthcare information, imposes strict limits on what information can be publicly shared, and established an extensive regimen of healthcare fraud, and abuse regulations.